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Foundation of Culture and Civilization

Pre–History: The Indian pre–history has broadly been divided into three cultural stages:

1. Paleolithic Age or Old Stone Age: When first stone tools were made by flaking and men lived in hunting and food gathering stage.
2. Mesolithic Age or Late Stone Age: When microlithic tools were used, it was the transitional period between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic age Hunting and food gathering continued during this period.
3. Neolithic Age or New Stone Age: When manmade stone tools by grinding and polishing were used, agriculture developed, life became settled and sedentary; that is why it is som4etimes called ‘Neolithic revolution’. In–the world context the Neolithic Age began in 9000 B.C. The only Neolithic settlement in the Indian sub–continent attributed to 7000 B.C. Which furnishes the first clear evidence of agriculture and domestication of animals in Mehergarh. But generally Neolithic settlements found in South India are not older than 2500 B.C. in some parts of southern and eastern India they are as late as 1000 B.C.

Chalcolithic Cultures: Chalcolithic cultures of stone–copper age saw the use of metals, the first being copper, along with stone tools. Technologically, chalcolithic age applied to the Pre–Harappans.

The Pre–Harappan Culture: Various types of Pre–Harappan chalcolithic cultures prompted the spread of communities in Sind, Baluchistan, Rajasthan etc. and created conditions for the rise of urban civilization of Harappa, Mention may be made of Amri and Kotdiji in Sindh, Kalibanga and Ganeshwar in Rajasthan, it appears that some chalcolithic farming communities ventured to the flood plains of the Indus, learnt Bronze technology and succeeded in setting up cities.

Proto–History: Indus valley civilization forms a part of the proto historic period of Indian history and belongs to Bronze Age. As this civilization was fist discovered in A.D. 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated in the province of West Punjab in Pakistan, it is also called Harappan civilization.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2350–1750 B.C.)

Origin: There are two views of the origin of IVC–Indegenous, from Pre–Harappan village culture and foreign origin influenced by Mesopotamia. The first view is more reasonable.

Extent:  Territorially biggest of ancient civilizations, formed a triangle and accounted for about 1,299,600 sq.km. With sutkagendor in Makran coast, Alamgirpur in Meerut district of UP, Manda in Jannu and Halavana in Surat district of Gujrat forming it’s western, eastern, northern and southern most point respectively.

Period: Recent Carbon 14 dating indicates the period of IVC as 2400 to 1700 B.C. and its mature phase between C. 2200–2000 B.C.

HARAPPA

Ø  First IVC sites to be excavated.

Ø  Excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921.

Ø  Situated in Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan) on the bank of Ravi.

Ø  Major findings include two rows of six granaries, workmen quarters, two sandstone statues depicting human anatomy, dog attacking dear, little bullock carts (ekkas), cemetery etc.

Ø  It is the only site which yields the evidence of coffin burial.

Ø  Rigveda mentions Itas Harivunia.

KALIBANGA

Ø  Shows both Pre–Harappan and Harappan phase.

Ø  Excavated by A. Ghosh in 1953.

Ø  Major findings are – Furrowed land, Fire alter and camel bones.

Ø  Many houses had their own wells.

Ø  Situated in Rajasthan on the Bank of Ghaggar.

Ø  Kalibanga means black bangles.

              Evidence of wooden drains

DHOLAVIRA

Ø  Is a recently excavated site considered to be the largest.

Ø  Excavated by R.S. Bisht (1985–90).

Ø  Situated in Gujarat in Rann of Kutch.

Ø  Reveals seven cultural stages, the city has three parts.

Ø  Unique water management.

LOTHAL

Ø  Excavated by R. Rao in 1953.

Ø  Situated in Gujarat on Bhogva River near Gulf of Combay.

Ø  Major findings include fist manmade port and a dockyard, bead makers factory, rice husk, fire alters, chess palying etc.

Ø  Evidence of joint burial suggests practice of sati.

MOHENJODARO

Ø  Literally the mound of dead.

Ø  Excavated by R.D. Banerjee in 1922.

Ø  Situated in Larkana districk of Sind (Pak) on the bank of Indus.

Ø  Major finding include a college, an Assembly hall, the Great Bath, a large granary, a piece of woven cotton ,Image ofBronze dancing girl, seal of Pashupati Mahadeva, steatite statute of a bearded man supposed to be a priest, evidence of horse from superficial level, bronze buffalo and a ram.

Ø  Probably the city declined due to flooding.

SUTKAGENDOR

Ø  Situated in Baluchistan on Dast river.

Ø  Western Harappan site, excavated in 1929 by Stein.

Ø  It was a trade point between Harappa and Babylon.

SURKOTADA

Ø  Excavated in 1964 by J.P. Joshi.

Ø  Bones of horses and bead making shopes found here.

CHANHUDARO

Ø  The only city had no ciadal.

Ø  Excavated by N.G. Majumdar in 1931.

Ø  Situated in Sind on Indus River.

Ø  Major finding are – bead makers shop, inkpot, footprints of a dog chasing a cat.

BANAWALI

Ø  Shows both Pre–Harappan and Harappan phase.

Ø  Excavated by R.S. Bisht in 1974.

Ø  Situated in Hissar district of Haryana.

Ø  Major finding are good quantity of barley, , bead making shods etc.

AMRI

Ø  Excavated by N.G. Majumdar in 1935.

Ø  Situated in Sindh on the bank of Indus.

Ø  Evidence of Antelop.

People: The IVC population was heterogenous; mainly four racial types (i) Mediterranean (ii) Proto–Australoids (iii) Mongoloids and (iv) Alpines. But the majority consisted of the former two.

Town planning: the major sites of the IVC had their own citadel or aceropolis below which lay the lower town containing brick houses inhabited by the common people. The streets originated north–south and east–west produced a grid system. The houses of Harappa and Mohanjodaro were almost invariably made of klin–burnt bricks. Elsewhere in the contemporary world mud bricks and wattle and daub were the usual building materials houses were provided with a well, and there was an excellent underground drainage system. The elaborate drainage system testifies to the civic sense and attention to health and cleanliness of the Harappans.

Important Sites: So far nearly 1000 sites of early mature and late phases of the Harappan culture are known in the subcontinent, but of them only half a dozen like Mohenjodaro, Harappa Kalibanga, Lothal, Chanhudaro, Banawali, Dholavira can be regarded as cities. Important port towns are Lothal; Surkotada and Dhoilavira Largest Harappan sites are Mohanjodaro, Harapa, Banawali and Dholavira.

Social Condition: As ‘Urban Society’ consisting mainly of middle class, highly developed civic life, a stratidied social structure, division of labour based on specialization of work like craftsmen, sculptures, jewelers, merchant, traders, potters, carpenters etc. The presence of warrior class is uncertain.

Ø  Food: Wheat and barley were staple food.

Ø  Garments: Garments of cotton and wool were used.

Ø  Pottery: Wheel turned and well fired black or red pottery having design of tree and circles.

Ø  Metals: Copper, bronze, silver, gold, lead were known but not Iron : Silver was more common than gold.

Ø  Weapons: Axes, spear, daggers, bows and arrows, and short swords made usually of copper and bronze.

Ø  Utensils: Bronze and copper objects for domestic use including knife–blades, sickles, fish hooks and a variety of pots.

Ø  Entertainment included dice playing or hunting with wild animals the former being much popular among them.

Economic conditions: It was mainly agrarian but supported by trade and commerce .Wheat and barley were main food crops besides rai, peas, seasamum, mustard, palmate etc. were also grown but not rice which was perhaps grown only at Lothal and Rangpur.in Gujrat.

Trade and commerce: Both internal and external trade was much brisk, no metallic money but barter system practiced, seals seem to be of merchandise importance. Overseas trade and outside contact is proved by almost two dozen Indus seals found from Mesopotamian.

Animal Husbandry: Humped bulls, oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, cats, dogs, and probably elephants were domesticated. The evidence regarding horse, camel and cow is inconclusive.

Script: The script was ‘pictographic’ in–origin but which had an ideographic or syllabic character. The writing was ‘Boustrophedon’ or from right to left and then, from left to right. It is still not deciphered.

Beads: Made generally of gold, silver, copper, steatite, semi–precious stone etc. are found in large numbers. Beads makers’ factory existed at Lothal and Chanhudaro Beads were an item of exports.

Religion: It was ‘primitive animism’. No temple–like structures have been found but image worship was in vogue. Religious practices revolved mainly around the worship of God in the form of human beings, animals and trees.

Ø  Female deity were much prominent, cult of Divine mother seems to have been widely prevalent.

Ø  Phallus cult of ‘Linga and Yoni’ indicates fertility worship.

Ø  Practice of ‘fire–cult’ evidenced from Lothal and Kalibanga may suggest ritual sacrifice.

Ø  One some seals prototype of Shiva is found in the form of Pashupati.

Ø  Pipal, Neem and Tulsi were worshiped.

Ø  Animal’s particulary humped bull was much venerated ‘Swastike’ symbols, doves, pigeons were sacred.

Ø  Practice of ‘Yoga’ was also noticed.

Burilas: Mainly of three types – cremation, complete burial and fractional burial. The former two being more popular, body usually placed with the head to the north. Belived in life after death is amply suggested by burial mode.

Contributions:

Ø  It was the First Urbanization in India.

Ø  Considered as mother or womb of Mathematics.

Ø  Cotton growing and spinning first practiced there.

Ø  Influenced later Hindu religious beliefs.

Decline: Traces of general decline in civic standards towards the last phase of the civilization noticed. Town planning abandoned and public buildings fells in ruin, water supply system fell in disrepair, trade and commerce declined etc.

EARLY VEDIC AGE or RIG VEDIC AGE (1500 BC – 1000 BC)

The word ‘Aryan’ is derived from ‘Arya’ in Sanskrit which means favourably disposed towards new comers and later it implied men of good family. It is a linguistic term and those who spoke Vedic Sanskrit were called Aryans.

Advent of Aryans: they were semi nomadic people lived in the great steppe land which stretches from Poland to Central Asian. On their way to India the Aryans first appeared in Iran. After crossing the Hindukush Mountains (Khyber Pass) through Afghanistan a little earlier than 1500 BC. The Aryans appeared in India.

Sources: We know about the Aryans in India from the Rigveda which is the earliest specimen of Indo–Europinan language and the only literary source of early Vedic age. Aryan did not lead settled life so they could not leave behind any solid material remains.

Geographic extent: The earliest Aryans lived in the region of ‘Saplasindihava i.e. the land of seven rivers covered by the area of eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and Fringes of western Uttar Pradesh. The Sindhu, identical with Indus is the river par excellence of the Aryans. Another river mentioned is ‘Saraswati’ and was the first of the Rigvedic Rivers as its bank witnessed the development of Vedic rituals and sacrifices.

Ø  ‘Yamuna’ is twice mentioned and ‘Ganga’ only Once.

Ø  They knew the ‘Himalaya’ as one of its peak ‘Mujavat’ a source of Soma Plant mentioned.

Ø  They knew nothing about ‘Vindhayas’ and was not familiar with the sea.

Ø  Social condition: A semi nomadic and pastoral people; kinship being the basis of social structure and clan for identification. People gave primary loyality to the tribe (Tana). The basic unit of society was patriarchal joint family. The head of the family was called ‘Kulapa or Kulapati’.

Ø  Women: Status of women was equal to men and received upnayana and education; studied Vedas, attended popular assemblies (Sabha and Samiti) and could offer sacrifices along with their husband.

Ø  Marriage: The institution of marriage was well established with the monogamy as general rule though polygamy and polyandry are also indicated. There was no child marriage and sati system. We also get evidence of widow remarriage.

Ø  Class Division: There was already a class division of priests, the warriors and of general people when the Aryans arrived in India. The fourth class called “Dasys” and “Dasas” emerged only in India. This fourth class was treated as slaves and shudras. The society was still tribal and largely egalitarian.

Ø  Polity: Family (Kula) was the basis of both social and political structures. The prevailing form of government was monarchial and Kingship was a tribal institution. King was known as ‘Rajan’ and his post was hereditary.

Ø  Important functionaries: The most important functionaries were ‘Purohita’ (the priest). ‘Senani’ (the leader of the Army) and ‘Gramini’ (the head of the village). They employ Spasa (Spies) to watchs the unsocial activities.

Ø  Important Assemblies: Important tribal assemblies were Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Ganga.

Ø  Army: There was no concept of regular standing Army.

Ø  The chief of offensive weapon was bow.

Ø  Economy: The Rig Vedic Aryan were Seminomadic and pastoralist, agriculture being a secondary occupation.

Ø  Their staple crop was barely (Yava).

Ø  Coins unknown, barter system was practiced.

Ø  Cow being the basic unit of value in large scale transaction and most important form of wealth. Most of the wars were fought for the cows (ganisthi in search for the cow).

Ø  No private ownership of land, but commercial ownership prevailed.

Ø  Gifts made to the priests usually consisted of cows and women slaves and never of cereals or land.

Ø  The term ‘ayas’ used for copper or bronze.

Ø  As the economy was mainly subsistence type, there is no clear evidence of trade.

Ø  They knew gold but not silver. Houses were made of wattle and daub.

Ø  Various crafts were practice. Carpentry, chariot making, warving, leather works, pottery were more important.

Religion: Rig Vedic religion was primitive animism impressed by the striking phenomena of nature. Altogether a host of 33 Gods have been identified and classified under terrestrial, atmospheric and celestical groups being represented respectively by Agni, Indra and Varuna as chief decities.

Ø  Indra: Was the greatest God for the Aryan worriers and 250 hymns of the Rigveda are attributed to him. He was called ‘Purandra’ or breaker of forts in the Rigveds.

Ø  Agni: Occupied second position and 200 hymns are devoted to him, is son of earth and heaven and god of fire. He is an intertnediary between gods and men and god of priests.

Ø  Varuna: occupied third position and personified water was ethically the highest of all Rigvedic gods.

Ø  “Soma” Considered being the God of plant, all the hyrmis of, IX mandala of Rigveda is assigned to him. He was a special god of Brahmanas who referred them as their king of patron deity, also called ‘king of gods’.

Ø  Rudra: The howler amoral, archer god whose arrows brought disease; lived in mountains, was guardian of healing herbs. He resembled the Greek god ‘Apollo’ has been identified with ‘proto–shiva’.

Ø  Pushan: Was ‘Lord’ of a/Death’, a sort of Adam and first man to die.

Ø  Yama: Was the “Lord a/Death’, a sort of Adam and first man to die.

Ø  Surya: Son of Dyaus, the father god who had lost importance in India.

Ø  Savitri: A solar deity to whom the famous ‘Gayatrimantra’ is attributed in Rigveda.

Ø  Aditi: Goddess of eternity and mother of gods.

Ø  Prithvi: Earth goddess.

Ø  Vishnu: Was a minor solar deity.

Ø  Manilas: Personified storms.

Ø  Vayu: God of wind

Demi Gods included ‘Gandharvas’ (divine musicians), ‘Apsaras’ (mistress of gods) ‘Vishavadevas’ (intermediate deities) etc. The Aryaman was guardian of compacts and marriage. The Rigvedic religion has been designated by ‘henotheism’ or ‘katheotheism’ i.e. belief in single god, each in turn standing out as the highest god according to the situation. There was no hierarchy of gods. It is between polytheism and monotheism. Male gods predominated and were far more important than female. The dominating mode of worshipping the gods was through the recitation of prayers, both collective and individual and offering of scanfies ‘Yajnas’. People did not worship god for their spiritual up liftment but for (food, wealth and health).

Tribal conflict: The Aryans were  engaged in two types of conflicts. First they fought with the pre–Aryans and secondly, they fought amoungst themselves. Intra–tribal conflicts rocked the Aryan communities for a long time divided into five tribes called ‘Panchajana’, the Aryan fought amongst themselves and sometime enlisted the support of the non–Aryan people for the purpose. The Bharatas and Tritsu were the ruling Aryan clans and were supported by priest ‘Vaishtha’, the former was opposed by a host of ten chiefs including live non–Aryan chiefs. The confederacy being led by priest Visvamitra resulted in the ‘Battle of Ten Kings’ (Dasarajana) fought on the river ‘Purushri’ (ravi) the king Sudas emerged victorious and established the supremacy of Bharatas.

Later Vedic Age (1000–600 BC)

The expression ‘Later Vedic Age’ comprises the far reaching changes and developments that took place in the religious, social, economic and political conditions of the people during the period when the later Samhitas, Sama, Yajur and Atharva and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas’ and Upanishads were composed. This age is also known as PGW Iron phase’ as in the same period and same area, digging and exploration having brought to light nearly 700 sites inhabited for the first–time the people who used earthen bowls and ‘dishes made of painted grey were (PGW) and also used iron weapons.

Geographic Expansion: The text and archaeology show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Uttar Pradesh and even to the border of Bengal of western Uttar Pradesh and even to the border of Bengal in the east. They also crossed Vindhyas and established their kingdom in Deccan to ‘the north of Godavari’.

Ø  They knew the two seas, the Arabian sea and the Indian Ocean and were familiar with many peaks of the Himalaya.

Ø  The Satapatha Brahmana mentions Agni burning forests between the river Sarasvati to river ‘Sadanira’ (Gandak) being carried by the ruler videha madhava. The legend alludes the Aryan expansion with the help of Agni.

Society: The society was Passiarchal. The position of women declined: the daughter came to be regarded as source of misery women could not attend the sabha, were excluded from ingeritance and along with shudras could not own property.

Ø  Monogamy remained the general and rule. ‘Sati’ was merely symbolic.

Ø  Gotra exogamy began to be practiced.

Ø  The society came to be divided into four varnas the growing cult of sacrifices enormously added to the power of the Brahmans.

Ø  With the discovery of iron and rise of numerous arts and crafts, there emerged sub castes based on occupation. The earliest clear reference to the four ashramas of four stages of life (Brahmacha, Grihastha, Vanprastha and Sanyas)  is found in the ‘Jabala Upanishad’.

Ø  The ‘Chrtndogya Upanished’ clearly refers to the first three ashrams.

Ø  The four ashramas were not for shudras.

Ø  Eight types of marriage are mentioned for the first time. They are given below:

o   Brahma Marriage of a duly dowried girl to a man of the same Verna.

o   Daiva: Father gives the daughter to the priest as part of his fee.

o   Arsa: A token bride price of a cow and a bull is given as dowry.

o   Prajapati: Marriage of without dowry and bride price.

o   Gandharva: By consent of two parties means modern love marriage.

o   Asura: Marriage by purchase.

o   Rakshasa: Marriage by capture.

o   Paisacha: It is the seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk.

o   Of these eight forms, only first four were generally approved and permissible to the Brahmanas. On the basis of Verna, marriage is further divided into two.

(i)     Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man in his own Verna or below his verna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the sacred texts.

(ii)   Pratiloma Marriage: was the Marriage of a girl or women in lower then her own Verna. It was not sanctioned by the sacred texts.

Polity: Formation of wider territory based kingdoms increased royal powers, Sabha and Sarnti lost their importance arid vidhata completely disappeared. The term ‘Rashtra’ which indicates territory first appeared in this period. Now wars, were fought not for Cows but for victory.

Pottery

Ø  Four types of pottery: Black and red were, black slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware, the last being most popular with them; however the most distinctive pottery of the period is knownas painted grey ware (PGW).

Ø  With the great advance in the material life of the people life became settled.

Religion: The simple ceremonial worship gave place to elaborate cult of sacrifices. Indra and Agni lost their former importance. Prajaqpati (the creator) came to occupy the supreme position. Some of the other minor Gods of the Rigvedic period also came to the forefront like Rudra and Vishnu.

Ø    Sacrifices both public and private became far more important, involving the killing of animals on large scale.

Ø  Sacrifices were accompanied with formulae and the magical power of words.

Ø  Towards the end of the period. Upanishads marked a reaction against the ritualistic and sacrificial religion.

Ø  Upanishad emphaised the relation between ‘Atma (self) and ‘Brahma’ (Universal soul).

Ø  The doctrine of Karma, Maya, Transmigration identification of universal soul with individual soul and mukti (emancipation), which were accepted as the main tenets of Hinduism find their first expression in the upnishads.

Later Vedic Literature: The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’ (to know) signifying knowledge par excellence. The Vedic literature mainly consisted of the Vedas or samhitas, Brahmans, aranyakas, Upanishads, vedangas sutras and upavedas.

1. The Veda or Samhitas four in number and first three are known as ‘Trayi’ (Three fold knowledge).

(i)      Rigveda: is a collection of hymns in praise of different gods recited by the priest styled ‘Hotri’ (the invoker); consisted of 1028 hymns; divided into X mandal of which I and X forms its latest addition and II to VII forms its earliest portions Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmana are attached to it.

(ii)    Samveda: All of its verses except 75 being taken from Rigveda its songs were meant to be sung at soma sacrifice by the priest ‘Udgatri’ (the singer). It is important sacrifice for the history of music. Tandyamaha and Jaminiya Brahmana are attached to it.

(iii)    Yajur Veda: Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifice. It contains rituals as well as hymns, recited by Adharuayu. The Veda is in prose and stand in sharp contrast to the (he Rigveda which is in Verses. Satapatha and Taittiriya Brahman are attached to it).

(iv)  Atharva Veda: Is book of magical foumulae that contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases; hence was supposed to be a non Aryan work, thus excluded from Trayi.

2. Brahmana’s: Their chief purpose is to explain the mutual relation to the sacred texts and their ceremonial as well as symbolical meanings with reference to each other. It may be said that the brahmanas deal with the science of sacrifice. They give rule for the performance of the sacrifical ceremonies. Each brahmana is connected with one of the samhitas (Veda).
3. Aranyakas: Forest books, I meant for instructions to be given for forest dewelling hermits are found as appendices to the Brahmanas and market the transition from ritualistic to philosophical religion.

BUDHISM

            The Buddha proved to be a practical reformer, who took note of the realities of the day. He did not involve himself in fuitless controversies regarding the soul and the Brahma, he addressed himself to wordily problems. The four Noble Truths, Eight fold path constituted the gift of his teaching.

The four Noble Truths:

Ø  Sarvam Dukkham: Life is full of misery.

Ø  Dukha Samudra: Desire is the cause of rebirth and misery.

Ø  Dukha Nirodha: Misery and rebirth can be ended by conquering desire.

Ø  Gaminal pratipad: Nirvana or salvation could be attained means man will be free from the circle of birth and death by following the Eight Fold Path, ‘Astangika Marg’.

Eight Fold Paths comprised: Right observation, Right action, Right speech, Right determination, Right means of livelihood, Right exercise, Right memory and Right determination.

Ø  Buddha called it the middle path ‘Majjhim Marg’, and led 10 commandments. First five to be observed by the laity and all by the monks.

Ø  Main aim of Buddhism is to attain Nirvana (Salvation) and this can be achieved by an individual even during his life time like that of Buddha.

Main sects of Buddhism: The first Buddhism suffered during 2^nd Buddhist council over small point of monastic discipline and the order broke into two Sthaviravadins (in Pali theravadi) and the Mahasanghikas. But the major split took place during 4^th Buddhist council and there emerged ‘Mahayana’ (the great vehicle) and ‘Hinayana’ (the lesser vehicle) form and Buddhism.

Ø  Hinayana treated Buddha nothing more than a human being, whereas Mahayanisms treated him as God.

Ø  Bodhisatva or Mahayanism was a saviour and would help every living organism in attaining Nirvana.

Ø  Like Hinduism Mahayanism also believed in a ‘suffering humanity’ and a ‘saviour’ who reincarnates time and again ‘Matreyi’ Buddha.

Ø  The Mahayanist adopted Sanskrit in place of Pali as their language. The earliest text is ‘Lalitvistara’.

Vajrayana: Later on another sect ‘the vehicle of thunderbolt’ appeared in eastern India during the seventh and eighth century and grew rapidly in Bihar and Bengal. It was sent to Tibet in 11^th century from Vajrayana Monastry of Vikramashila. The sect was based on primitive cult and rituals and full of magical formulae.

Ø  The chief divinities of this sect were the ‘Taras’ (the spouses of Buddhas and Bodhisattavas).

Ø  They did not treat meat, fish, wine etc. as a tabbo in dietary habit and freely consumed them.

Buddhist Literature: In main consists of three Pitakas (Baskets).

Ø  Vinaya Pitak contained rules and regulations of monks and nuns.

Ø  Sutta Pitak is short sermons of Buddha, divided into 5 Nikayas.

Ø  Abhidhamma Pitak contains the metaphysics (religious discourses) of Buddha.

Ø  Jatakas are stories of previous births of Buddha and there are 500 such stories.

Ø  Malindapanho is a dialogue between Greek king Minandar and the Buddhist saint Nagasena.

Ø  Tripitakas were finally complied at 4^th Buddhist council and are written in Pali.

Royal Patrons

Ø  Greatest patron was Ashoka who called third Buddhist council and sent mission to Sri Lanka.

Ø  Another great patron was Kanishka, who called fourth council and sent mission to China, Korea and Japan.

Ø  Harsha of Kannauj was the follower of Mahayanism.

Ø  Pala of Bengal and Bihar were last great patrons. They were greatest patron of University of Nalanda and founder of Vikramashila University.

Buddhist Saints and Shcolars

Ø  Ananda, who was with Buddha at the time of his death, heard the last sermon of Buddha.

Ø  Mogaliputta Tissa presided over the third Buddhist council.

Ø  Upagupta converted Ashoka to Buddhist.

Ø  Vasubandhu, who presided over the 4^th Buddhist council, was popularly known as encyclopaedia of Buddhism.

Ø  Ashvaghosha was the first biographer of Buddha, who wrote ‘Buddha Charitam’ in Sanskrit.

Ø  Nagarjuna was the greatest Mahayana scholar who propounded the theory of ‘Shunjavada’.

BUDDHIST COUNCILS

Council/Place                     Year                             President/Participant                              Patron King

1st Rajgir                         983 B.C.                  Mahakassapa/Anand Upali                           Ajatshatru

2nd Vaishali                     483 B.C.                  Sabakami                                                       Katasoka

3rd Pataliputra                 250 B.C.                 Mogaliputta Tisya                                         Ashoka

4th Kundalavana              72 A.D.                   Vasumitra/Parshva Ashvaghosa                   Kanishka

(Kashmir)

Decline of Buddhism:

Ø  It became victim to the evils of Brahmanism, against which it had fought in the beginning

Ø  Generous royal grants made life of monks easy and monasteries became centers of corrupt practices

Ø  Entry of women in monasteries led the further degradation

Ø  The Brahman ruler pushyamitra Sunga is said to have persecuted the Buddhist. The Shaivite king Shashank of Gauda (Bengal) cut the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya, where Buddha had got enlightenment

Ø  For their riches, Buddhist monasteries came to be converted by the Turkish invaders. Thus by the 12^th century A.D. Buddhism had practically disappeared from the land of its birth.

JAINISM

According to Jaina tradition there were 24 ‘Tirthankara (literally Ford maker, across the stream of existence), the first being, Rishavadeva, who perhaps got mention in the Rigveda. We have historical proof of only the last two viz Parshvanath (23^rd) and Mahavira (24^th), former belonged to royal family of Banaras.

Ø  Mahavira was born in 540 B.C. in a village Kundgama near Vaishali, which is identical with Basrah. His name was Vardhaman.

Ø  His father Siddhartha was the chief of the Jantrika tribe of Kshtriya under Vajji of Vaishali and his mother was a Lichchavi princes names Trishala. His wife’s name was Yasoda.

Ø  He left home at the age of 30 and became an ascetic, kept wandering for 12 years; followed practices of nirgrantha (free from fetters) of extreme penance and austerity. He was accompanied by Makkhali Gosala, but later due to quarrels Gosala left and founded Ajivika Sect.

Ø  He got kaivalya (omniscience of enlightenment at the age of 42 under a sal tree on the bank of river Rijupalika near village Jimbhikagrama (not identified so far) and conquered misery and happiness.

Ø  Because of this conquest he is known as ‘Mahavira’ or the ‘Great hero’ or ‘Jina’ or the conqueror and his followers are known as ‘Jainas’.

Ø  For the rest 30 years of his life he preached in the Gangatic basins and even went to western India; passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at Pavapuri near modern Rajgir.

Doctrine of Jainism

Jainism taught five doctrines (i) Satya do not speak lies (ii) Ahinsa do not commit violence (iii) Aparigraha do not own property (iv) Asteya not to steal and (v) Brahmacharya celibacy.

            It is said that the first four were already circulating before Mahavira in Jaina tradition and only the firth and last was added by him.

            Three Jewels of Jainism mainly aim at attaining of liberation from this worldly bonds through Right knowledge, Right faith and Right action, and these three are considered to be the three jewels or ‘Triratna’ of Jainism.

Ø  Jainism like Buddhism is fundamentally atheistic, though not denying the existence of Gods its refuses to give them any importance in the universal scheme of things and place them lower than Jina (the conqueror).

Ø  The world for the Jainas is not created, maintained or destroyed by any diety, but functions only according to universal scheme of law and it is eternal.

Ø  Salvation could be achieved by the purification of soul through severe penance and practicing triratnas. However full salvation is possible only for ascetics and not to a laity.

Ø  ‘Nayavada’ of Jainism states that ‘reality’ can be approached from different view points which are, therefore relative and knowledge can not be absolute. Truth therefore can be affirmed only with a degree of probability which is called ‘Syadvada’ in Jainsim.

Digamber and Shvetamber: During Magadh famine in the regin of Chandragupta Maurya some Jaina Monks under Bhadribahu migrated to Karnataka where they had lived in the old traditional way strictly observing the religious rules. Whereas they alleged, the asceltics living it Magadha had violated those rules and taken white dress besides editing religious texts in their absence. From now onwards, the scutherners began to be called Digamber (the sky clad) and the Magadhans Shvetamber (the white clad).

Ø  According to Shvetambaras the original doctrine taught by Mahavira contained in 14 old texts called ‘Purvas’ which was passed orally for 200 years.

Ø  After first jaina council held at Pataliputra (310 B.C.) these were finally compiled into 12 ‘Angas’ by Shvetambers but were not accepted by the Digambers.

Ø  The second council held at Vallabhi in Gurjarat (453 A.D.) finally codified the scriptures and reduced them to writing.

Ø  Jaina’s monastice establishments were called ‘Basadis’.

Ajivikas: Founded by Makhali Gosala was popular between 5^th – 3^rd century B.C.  Preached the doctrine of ‘Niyati’ (pre determinism) and decried the theory of karma, everything in world is pre–determined; destiny control everything and man is helpless.

MAGADH

Three different dynastics ruled Matgadha till it was finally incorporated by Mauryas.

Haryanka Dynasty: The first important ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara (544–492 J B.C.) of Haryanka Dynasty a contemporary of Buddha and patronized Buddhism, conquered Angra and Strengthened his position by Marriage alliances keeping three wives–first from Kosala (sister of Prasenjit) Second from Vajjis (a Lachavi Princes) and third from the chief of Modra clan of Punjab.

Ø  Magadha’s most serious rival was Avanti with its capital at Ujjain its king Chanaprodyata Mahasena fought Bimbisara.

Ø  But ultimately the two became friends and Bimbisara sent royal physician Jaivika to Ujjain.

Ø  The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called ‘Giriraj’ at that time.

Ø  Ajatshatru (492–460 B.C.) seized the throne after killing his father Bimbisara and pursued and aggressive policy of expansion.

Ø  He subdued the Kosalan king and enlarged his kingdom by conquering Kashi and Vishali.

Ø  Udayin (460–444 B.C.) succeeded Ajatshtru and is remembered for building the fort upon the confluence of the Gang and the Son at Patna. The famous city of Pataliputra was founded in this way.

Shishunaga Dynasty (413–334 B.C.) it is said that Uday in was among the five successor kings who had acquired throne by patricides; the people of Magadha finally outraged by this deposed the last of the five in 413 B.C. and apponted Shishunaga, a viceroy of Benaras as king.

Ø  The most famous events was the capital was shifted to Vaishali.

Ø  Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of Avanti and its final incorporation in the Magadhan Empire.

Nanda Dynasty (344–321 B.C.)

Ø  The founder of the Dynasty was Mahapadma Nanda; he added to the Magadhan kingdom, kalinga, from where he brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy.

Ø  Mahapadma Nanda calimed to be ‘ekaat’ the sole sovereign whoa destroyed all the ruling princes.

Ø  The nandas were fabulously rich and enormously powerful, they had developed an effective taxation system, built canals and carried out irrigation projects and had a strong army.

Ø  The Nandas were overthrown by the Maurya Dynasty under which the Magadhan Empire reached the apex of its glory.

Causes of the Rise of Magadha

Ø  Advantageous strategic geographical location both at Rajgir and pataliputra Rajgir was surrounded by a group of five hills rendering it impregnable. Pataliputra was a water fort (Jaladurga), besides it occupied a pivotal position commanding river communications all sides for movement of the army.

Ø  Closeness to the source of natural resources like iron ores enabled the Magadhan princes to equip themselves with effective weapons.

Ø  Agricultural tools of Iron, which increased production and added to royal taxation.

Ø  The Alluvial soil of Gangatic plains and sufficient rain fall was very conducive for agricultural practices.

Ø  Rise of towns and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce, that increased royal revenue.

Ø  Use of elephants on a large scale in its war supplied by the eastern part of the country added to the military power and lastly.

Ø  The unorthodox character of the Magadhan society as a result of racial admizture.

MAURYA EMPIRE

The history of Maurays unlike that of the earlier ruling houses, is rendered reliable by a variety of evidences drawn from such sources as the Buddhist and the Jaina tradition. The ‘Arthasatra’ of Kautilya,  the Greek accounts, the first decipherable inscription of Ashoka (deciphered by James Princip in 1837) and the archaeological remains. The Purans and ‘Mudrarakshasa’ of ‘Vishakhadutta’, though belonged to a later date, through light on the history of the Maurya.

Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 B.C.): Chandragupta was the founder of Mauryan dynasty–Brahmanical source, (Mudrarakshasa) say that the name Maurya was derived from ‘Mura’ a shudra woman in the court of Nandas and Chandragupta was son or grandson of that woman. Vishnu Purana also mentions him of lower origin of shudra. But the Buddhist and Jaina sources discribed him a Kshatriya status. His early career is shrouded in mystry. To Justin, a Greek writer, he overthrew Nandas between 325–322 B.C. To Plutarch, he met Alexander in Punjab and implicitly invited him to attack Nandas but offended him by his boldness of speech.

Ø  Chandragupta occupied Magadhan throne in 322 B.C. with the help of ‘Chanakya or Kautilya or Vishnugupta’.

Ø  He had allied with a Himalyan chief Parvataka.

Ø  He defeated Seleukas the Alexander’s governor in 305 B.C. Who acceded to Chandragupta the three rich provinces of Kabul, Kandhar and Heart. He had given 500 elephants.

Ø  Selesukas probably gave one of his daughter to Chandragupta and sent an ambassador Megasthense in the Mauryan court, who wrote an account (Indika) not only of the administration of the city of Pataliputra but also of the Mauryan empire as a whole. Towards the end of his life he adopted Jainism (298 B.C.), abdicted the throne and fasted upto death in an orthodoz Jaina manner at Sravan Belagola near Mysore on Chandragiri Hill.

Bindusara (298–273 B.C.): He was son of Chandragupta and was known as Amitraghat (slayer of foes), He continued the friendly links with Syrian king Antiochus. It is stated to have requested him for a present of figs and wine together with a sophist. Antiochus sent figs and wine but replied that Greek philosophers were not for export.

Ø  He also received a Greek ambassador ‘Daimachos’ from Antiochus.

Ø  Pliny tells that Ptolemy II Philadephos of Egypt sent an envoy ‘Dionysios’ to Bindusar’s court.

Ø  Tradition credits him the suppression of revolt at Taxila, who later appointed his son Ashoka for further redressal of grievances against the misrule of wicked bureaucrats (dustanatyas).

Ø  Bindusara did not make any territorial conquest.

Ø  He was the follower of Ajivika religion.

Ashoka (273 – 232 B.C.) He had served as governor of Taxila and Ujjain previously. A Buddhist text ‘Dipavamsa’ says that he got the throne after killing his 99 brother, except the youngest one.

Ø  He fought the Kalingawar in 261 B.C. in the 9^th year of his reign which proved to be a turning point in his carrier and he became a Buddhist upasaka and undertook Dharmayatras.

Ø  He inaugurated his Dharmayatras from the 11^th year of his reign by visiting Bodhgaya.

Ø  In the 14^th year of his reign he started the institution of dharma Mahmatras (the officers of rightepismess) to spread the message of Dhamma.

Ø  During his reign the policy of Bherighosa (Physical conquest) was replaced by that of Dhammaghosha (cultural conquest).

Ø  In course of his second tour in the 21^st year of his reign he visited Lumbini, the birth place of Buddha and exempted the village from Bali (tribute) and the Bhaga (the royal share of the produce) which reduced to one eighth.

Ashoka’s Dhama: Ashoka was careful enough to make a distinction between his personal belief and his support for Buddhism and sectarian conflicts and to promote a harmonious relationship between the diverse elements of the vast empire. His Dhama was an ethical code aimed at building up an attitude of social responsibility among the people.

            It was not synonymous with Buddhism; it was aimed at building up an attitude of mind of social responsibility based on man’s dignity and humanistic approach. It was not a sectarian faith. It emphasized truth non violence, toleration, compassion, obedience etc. which were common to almost all religions prevailing in India and none could object its basic tenants.

           

Ashoka’s Hellenistic contemporaries: They were Autiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II philadphus of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, Antigonous Gonatas of Macedonia and Alexander of Epirus. These are mentioned in his thirteenth Rock Edict.

           

Ashoka’s Edict: He was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions, which seem to be the earliest specimens of Prakrit language in India. They are mostly engraved on rocks and found not only in Indian subcontinent but also in Afghanistan. These incriptions communicate royal orders.

Ø  Composed in Prakrit they were written in Brahmi script throughout the greater part of the empire. But in the north–western part they appear in Aramaic and Kharoshthi script.

Ø  The Ashokan Inscriptions were generally placed on ancient highways.

Ø  They through light on the career of Ashoka his external and domestic policies and the extent of his empire.

Ø  Bhabru edict confirms Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism.

Ø  Tarai pillars shows Ashoka’s respect for Buddhism.

Ø  14^th Major Rock Edicts are related to administration and ethics.

Ø  Minor Rock Edicts gave personal history of Ashoka and summery of Dahma.

Ø  1^st major rock edict banning of killing of animal & birds.

Ø  A 2nd major rock edict mentions Chola, Chera, Pandaya and Satyapputra.

Ø  5^th major rock edict appointment of Dhammanmahamatras,

Ø  Kalinga edict (Dhauli and Jaugada). “All men are my children”.

Later Mauryas: Ashoka died in 232 B.C. and with him departed the glory of Mauran empire, Vishnu Puran gives the names of his seven successors but with no details; probably the empire was divided into two parts of eastern and western. The western being ruled by Kunal and later for sometime by Samprati where Indo–Greeks began to make early inroads, and until 180 B.C. had virtually supplanted the later Mauryas. The eastern part being ruled by Brihadratha from Pataliputra. He was the seventh king in succession from Ashoka. He was killed by his commander in chief Pushyamitra, who ascended the throne in 187 B.C. The royal dynasty founded by him is known as Sunga Dynasty.

FOREIGN INVASION (POST MAURYA PERIOD) 200 B.C. TO 200 A.D.

With the decline of Mauryan Empire a series of invasions from Central Asia began around 200 B.C. The first to cross the Hindukush were the Indo Greeks. Who ruled Bactria.

Indo Greeks

Ø  Demetrius, the king of Bactria invaded India about 190 B.C. and captured part of Mauryan dynasty in the North–West.

Ø  The most famous Indo–Greek ruler was Menander (165 – 145 B.C.), who is said to have pushed forward as far as Ayodhya and reached Ptaliputra. His capital was ‘Sakala’ (Sialkot).

Ø  Menander also known as Milinda, who converted to Buddhsm by Nagasena (Nagarjuna),. The conversation between the two is recorded in a book named ‘Malindapanho’ (Question of Milinda).

Ø  Indo–Greeks were the first ruler in India to issue coins definitely attributed to the kings.

Ø  They were also the first to issue gold coins in India.

Ø  They also introduced practice of military governorship. They appointed their governors called ‘Strategos’.

Ø  The Greek ambassador called Heliodorous set up a pillar in honour of Vishnu at Videsha (Madhya Pradesh).

Ø  The term ‘Horshastra’ used for astrology in Sanskrit had been derived from the Greek term horoscope.

The Sakas: The Greek were followed by Sakas, who controlled much larger part of India than the Greek did. Though thet were fult fledged independent rulers. Curiously enough, called them ‘Kshtrapa’ a sanskritised form of Persain Satrap of Governor.

Ø  A king of Ujjain in 58 B.C. is said to have defeated the Saka and styled himself Vikramaditya.

Ø  The most famous Saka ruler was Rudradaman I, who ruled in western India and is famous fore the repairs he undertook to improve the ‘Sudarshana Lake’, built during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.

Ø  First ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit was issued by Rudradaman.

The Parthians: The Sakas were followed by Parthians special interest is attached to Gondophernes. In whose propagate Christianity and converted him to his faith.

The Kushanas:  The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas who were also called Yucchis, or Tocharians Vima Kadphises established the Kushana authority as far as Vamasi in the east, credited for issuing a large number of gold coins.

Kanishka extended his empire from Indus to the eastern borders of U.P. (Benaras) and Bokhara in north to Ujjain in the south.

He was a great patron of Buddhism and the 4^th Buddhist council is said to have been held under his patronage.

He patronized ‘Asvaghosa’ the writer of Buddhacharita.

He also ‘patronized’ Charaka, the great authority in Medical Science.

Purushpura (Peshawar) was the capital of Kushanas. Mathura seems to be their second capital.

Kanishka controlled the famous ‘silk route’, in central Aisa, which started from China and passed through his empire in central Asia Afghanistan to Iran and Western Aisa which formed the part of Roman Empire.

Kanishka started an era known as Saka era which starts from 78 A.D.

The Kushana king were the first ruler in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale with higher degree of metallic purity than is found in Gupta period.

The Gandhra and Mathura School of art received the royal patronage of Kushanas.

Sunga Dynasty: The dynasty was founded by Puhsyamitra Sunga, a Brahman of the sunga family. He fought two wars and won them, conducted two Asvamedha Yajnas. The Yajnas marked the revival of Vedic rituals. The last ruler of Sunga dynasty, Devabhumi was killed by his minister Vasudeva in about 73 B.C.

Kanva Dynasty: The dynasty was founded by Vasudeve, a Brahman. After a short span of 45 years the Kanvas were overthrowned by Andharas.

The Satavahana: In Deccan and in central India the Mauryas were succeeded by the Satavahanas around first century B.C. and ruled for about 30 years with its capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the Godavari in Aurangabad district.

Ø  Simuka was the first important ruler and the greatest competitor of the Stavahanas was sakas.

Ø  The fortunes of the family were restored by Gautamiputra Satakarni, who defeated the Sakas.

Ø  Trade particularly with Roman Empire was very brisk as is indicated by numerous Roman and Satavahana coins.

Ø  The Satavahanas may have used gold as bullion, for they did not issue gold coins; they issued mostly coins of lead. They also used tin, copper and bronze coins.

Ø  The Satavahanas, were the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmans.

Ø  A Prakrit text ‘Gathasaptasati’ or ‘Gathasattasai’ is attributed to a Satavahana king Hala.

THE GUPTA (275 – 550 AD)

After the break up of Mauryan Empire th Satavahana (in the south) and Kushana (in the north) emerged as two large political powers. The Satavahana acted as a stabilizing factor in the Deccan and south to which they gave political unity and economic prosperity. The Kushana performed the same role in the north. Both these empires came to an end in the middle of the 3^rd century A.D. On the ruins of the Kushana empire arose a new empire which established its way over a good part of the former dominions of both the Kushanas and Satavahanas. This was the empire of the Guptas who may have been of Vaishya origin. Little is known of the early Guptas; first known ruler was ‘Sri Gupta’ probably ruling over a small pertion of north Bengal and south Bihar. He was succeeded by his son ‘Ghatotkhaca’. Both adopted the title of Maharaj. The first important king of the Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta I.

CHANDRAGUPTA–I (320 – 335 A.D.)

Ø  He assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’ and issued gold coins.

Ø  He married Lichchavi princes Kumara Devi and had her portrait engraved on his coins.

Ø  Chandragupta I seems to have been a ruler of considerable importance because he started Gupta era in A.D. 319 – 20, which marked the date of his accession.

SAMUDRAGUPTA (335 –380 A.D.): Called ‘Nepolion of India’ by Vincent Smith, enlarged the Gupta kingdom enormously. The Allahabad pillar inscription composed by Harisena, his court poet enumerates the people and countries that were conquered by Ssamudragupta, which had been divided into 5 groups.

Ø  Rulers of ‘Aryavarta’ i.e. Ganga–Yamuna Doab.

Ø  Ruler of Eastern Himalyan states and some foreign states such as princes of Nepal, Assam,Bengal etc.

Ø  Central Indian tribes (Atavika rajya).

Ø  12 rulers of Eastern Deccan and South India.

Includes the name of the Sakas and Kushanas.

Ø 12 kings were defeated in course of Samudragupta’s Dakshinapath campaign, who reached as far as Kanchi and Pallava ruler Vishnugupta was compelled to recognize his suzeraintly. But he reinstated all the 12 kingdoms as tribulary states.

Ø Virasen was the army commander in the famous southern campaign of Samudragupta.

Ø In Allahabad inscription Samudragupta describes him as the hero of hundred battles. In one of his coins he called himself ‘Lichchhavi duhiti’ (daughter’s son of the Lichchhavis).

Ø He performed Asvamedha Yajana to claim imperial title and struck gold coins of Yupa type to commemorate the occasion.

Ø He maintained the tradition of religious toleration, granted permission to Buddhist king of Cylon, Meghavarman, to build a Monastry at Bodh Gaya; so, he called ‘Anukampavan’ (full compassion).

Ø He was a great patron of art, adopted the title of ‘Kaviraja’ poets like Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court; on some gold coins he was shown playing Veena.

CHANDRAGUPTA II (380 – 415 A.D.):  He was also a great conqueror like his father and his reign saw the high water mark of the Gupta Empire. Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription claims his authority over north western India and a good portion of Bengal. Virasens’a Udagirl cave Inscription refers to his conquest of the whole world. He defeated the last of the Sake ruler Rudra Simha III and annexed the territories of western Malwa and Gujarat. He was also called ‘Vikramaditya’.

Ø  Chandragupta II made Ujain the second capital of the empire.

Ø  He strengthened the empire by matrimonial alliance, married his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince Rudrasena II (a Brahman), he himself married a Naga princes ‘Kuber Naga’.

Ø  He was also a man of art and culture, his court at Ujjain was adorned by ‘Navratna’ (Nine gems) including Kalidasa, Amarsinha, Fa–hsien, Acharya Dinanga etc.

Ø  Verasena–Sabha was the court poet and minster of Chandragupta II.

KUMARGUPTA (415 – 455 A.D.):  He performed Asvamedha sacrifices, but we do not know of his any military success, though he maintained the vast empire intact. Towards the close of his reign, the empire was attacked the Pushyamitra tribe (a branch of Hunas of central Asia).

SKANDAGUPTA (455 – 467 A.D.): He repulsed the ferocious Hunas twice; this heroic feat entitled him toassume the title of Vikramaditya.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING GUPTA EMPIRE

Mathematics: Gupta period is unparalleled for its achievements in the field of mathematics and astronomy. Aryabhatta was the first to use decimal system though he was not its originator. He formulated the rule for finding out the area of triangle which led to the origin of trigonometry. He calculated the value of pie and laid down the foundation of algebra in his Aryabhatta. The most famous work of tis time was Suryasiddhanta. The credit for separating astronomy from mathematics goes to Aryabhatta.

Brahmagupta in the 7^th century A.D. developed rules for operating with zero and negative quantities, he began to apply algebra to astronomical problems.

Astronomy: Prominent astronomers were Aryabhatta and Varahamihir. Aryabhatta was the first great astronomer who wrote Aryabhattiyam, found the causes of lunar and solar eclipses, calculated the circumference of earth, which is still almost correct. He was first to reveal that the sun is stationary and the earth revolves found the sun.

Varahamihira’s well known work was ‘Brihatsamhita’, it stated that the moon rotates round the earth and the earth rotates round the sun. he also wrote ‘Panch siddhantika’ which gives the summery of five astronomical books current in his time.

Romaka siddhanta, a book on astronomy was also complied and was perhaps influenced by Greek ideas.

Metallurgy:  The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze several Bronze image of the Buddha were produced in the case of iron objects, the best example is the famous Iron Pillar found at Mehrauli (Delhi). It has withstood rain and weather for centuries without rusting.

Literature

Sanskrit language and literature made much headway during this period. From this time onward we find greater emphasis on verses than prose. Although we get a good deal of Brahmanical religious literature, the period also produced some of the earliest pieces of secular literature.

Ø  The greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist of the Gupta age was Kalidasa, his important works were Meghdutam, Abhijana Shakuntalam, Kumarsambhava, Raghuvamsa, Ritusamhara, Malvikagnimitra etc.

Ø  Bhasha wrote three plays, Shudraka wrote ‘Mrichchkatikam’ or the little clay cart.

Ø  Vishakhadatta produced ‘Mudrarakshasa’ and ‘Devichandraguptam’.

Art (The golden Age)

Temple Style: The Gupta period maks the beginning of Indian temple architecture free standing temple style with a ‘Garbha–griha’. Dasavatara temple at Deogarh (Jhansi) is finest square temple with a low and squar shikhara (tower) above. The temple at Bhitargaon (Kanpur) is made of brick.

Sculpture: Phenomenal development, sculptural representation of divinities was at their best. Best exampleis provided by the stone sculpture of Nara–narayan from Dasvatara temple, Deogarh metal sculpture of a high degree is testified by the over two meter higli bronze image of Buddha recovered from Sultanganj near Bhagalpur. Gupta stone sculptural art was related to the Mathura School.

Painting reached its zenith with regard to aesthetic and technical standard as is furnished by the Ajanta paintings. Their themes were borrowed from Jataka stories i.e. previous incarnations of Buddha and from other secular source ‘Dying princes, ‘Mother and child’ etc. the Ajanta painters excelled in the depiction of human and animal figures.

Age of Harsha

The Guptas with their seat of power in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar ruled over north and western India for about 160 years until, the middle of the 6^th century A.D. Then north India again split into several kingdoms gradually one of these dynasties ruling at Thaneshwar in Haryana extended its authority over all the other feudatories. The fourth king Prabhakarvardhana assumed imperial little. His daughter Rajyasri was married to the Maukhari king Grahavarman of Kannauj. There were three other kingdomas Malwa, Gauda (Bengal) and Kamrupa.

Sasanka, king of Gauda, not only established his authority over the whole of Bengal but also added Orissa to his dominions. He then advanced towards the west and in alliance with the king of Malwa, defeated and killed the Maukhari king Grahavaman and imprisioned his queen Rajyasri.

Ø  Harshvardhana, son of Prabhakarvardhana and younger brother of Rajyavardhana, was offered the crown at a time when the throne of both Kannnauj and Thaneshwar was simultaneously lying vacant. The statesmen of Kannauj offered the crown to Harsha on the advice of their leading noble Bani (Bandhi).

Ø  Harsha made kannauj the seat of power from where he extended his authority in all directions. In the beginning he contended himself with the modest title of ‘Rajaputra Siladitya’.

Ø  The early history of Harsha’s reign is reconstructed by his biography ‘Harshacharita’, written by his court poet Banabhatla.

Ø  The later history is known from the accounts of ‘Hiuen–Tsang’, the Chinese pilgrim, who visited India during his reign, traveled all over the country stayed for about 15 years and was on friendly terms with him.

Ø  Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor of India, but he was neither a staunch Hindu nor the ruler of the whole country.

Extent of Harsh’a Empire: He ruled a vast territory comprising eastern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar West Bengal and Orissa under direct control. But his sphere of influence spread over a much wider areas; Kashmir does not seem to be included in his territory, though he is reported to have led an expedition to Kashmir from where he carried up the Bodhi–relic of Buddha.

Ø  Independent kings like his son in law, the king of Valbhi and his ally king Bhaskarvarman of Kamarupa offered him homage and even attended his court.

Ø  In eastern India he faced opposition from the Shaivite king Sasanka of Gauda, but his death in A.D. 619 put an end to this hostility.

Ø  He also attempted to extend his empire beyond the Narmada but was defeated by Chalukayan king Pulkeshin II in A.D. 634.